Effects on an individual 'Sometimes people receive such a strong dose of stress that they have a very difficult time recovering. Surviving such stress can mean a longer time to recover, recurring symptoms of stress-related illness, and occasional set-backs whenever exposure to extreme stress occurs. Troublesome memories or dreams make it particularly difficult for people to get on with their lives because they feel stuck in the past. Furthermore, because they have little or no control over these intense and unwelcome memories, they may feel that they have lost control of their minds.' (Psychological Support: Community-based Psychological Support Training manual. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. 2002). Below, we explore the following themes: - Is trauma the same as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)?
- Symptoms of a post-traumatic stress reaction.
- The kinds of stress reactions following a traumatic event differ from one person to the next.
- The stress reactions of children often differ from those of adults.
Is trauma the same as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)? In professor Wolters' view, post-traumatic stress disorder is not a catch-all phrase. 'I always use the term "post-traumatic stress reaction". These are reactions or symptoms of normal people in an abnormal situation. There are many victims of trauma and there is a certain number among them who display real disorders. But in those cases we must also ask ourselves what else is at play here: the past, aptitude, previous psychological problems and disorders that resurface acutely or become loaded with extra meaning. All in all, we are much more cautious in these matters than before'. (Link to FAQ's Does everyone who has been through a traumatic experience need professional help? Symptoms of a post-traumatic stress reactions In the manual on "Coping with disasters: a guidebook to psychological intervention (2001), professor Ehrenreich (Center for Psychology and Society, State University of New York) has described a number of symptoms of a post-traumatic stress reaction: - grief, mourning, depression, despair, hopelessness
- anxiety, nervousness, being frightened easily, worrying
- disorientation, confusion
- rigidity and obsessiveness, or vacillation and ambivalence
- feelings of helplessness and vulnerability
- dependency, clinging; or alternatively: social withdrawal
- suspiciousness, hypervigilance, fear of harm, paranoia
- sleep disturbances: insomnia, bad dreams, nightmares
- irritability, hostility, anger
- moodiness, outbursts of emotion
- restlessness
- difficulties concentrqting; memory loss
- somatic complaints: headaches, gastrointernal symptoms, sweats and chills, tremors; fatigue, hair loss, changes in menstrual cycle, loss of sexual desire, changes in hearing or vision, diffuse muscular pain
- intruvise thoughts: flashbacks, feeling one is "re-living" the experience, often accompanied by anxiety
- avoidance of thoughts about the disaster and avoidance of places, pictures, sounds reminding the victim of the disaster; avoidance of discussion about it
- problems in interpersonal functioning; increased marital conflict
- increased drug and alcohol use
- cognitive complaints: difficulty concentrating, remembering, slowness of thinking
- difficulty making decisions and planning
- feeling isolated, abandoned
- "dissociative experience": feelings of being detached from one's body or from one's experiences, as if they are not happening to you; feeling things seem "unreal"; feeling as if one is living in a dream
- feelings of ineffectiveness, shame, despair
- self-destructive and impulsive behaviour
- suicidal ideation or attempts
- the "death imprint": pre-occupation with images of death
Source: Ehrenreich 2001, page 17 Post traumatic stress reaction In extreme cases, this leads to a number of symptoms: - Invading images, all manner of mental pictures but also smells, for instance, that are linked to the traumatic situation and this can lead to fear and a great panic.
- Numbing, freezing; the experience is so extreme that one ceases to feel anything, in a manner of speaking. What this means, in fact, is that these feelings, the fear, aggression and panic have been stowed away and lie dormant. Depending on the situation they can re-emerge.
- Hyper alertness. You are in your manhole at the front, you know that in a certain way this experience is life-threatening, both physically and psychologically. You know you have to be on your guard all the time. So everything gets mobilised, there is an enormous stress reaction, you are unable to relax and sleep, and so it goes on. This is very exhausting. It leads to nightmares, physical complaints, depression, et cetera. (professor Wolters)
The kinds of stress reactions following a traumatic event are different from one person to the next Thoughts, feelings, physical sensations and behaviour can all be influenced by the experience of a traumatic event. This is a normal reaction to an abnormal situation. How the reaction to such an event will be depends on the individual. Everyone has been socialized differently and has a different personal history. All this has a bearing on the experience and the response to it. The same traumatic event can be experienced and endured by various people in the same way; the consequences, in other words the responses, may differ from one person to the next. (AVSI Handbook for teachers (USAID), 2003, p. 12) The stress reactions of children often differ from those of adults 'Children and adolescents do not display the specific standard set of reactions following a traumatic event. But there are more general responses: psychosomatic complaints, sleeping disorders, dependent behaviour, but also a response that is known as "acting out". Children begin to indeed act out certain aspects of the trauma. It is known, for instance, that boys, having suffered sexual abuse, may become sexual abusers themselves. Alcohol and drugs are kind of tranquilizer, which helps people maintain some kind of balance in their lives. So a whole range of important general symptoms may emerge from this'. (professor Wolters) In the section called CHILDREN (link to article), more information is given about the impact traumatic events may have on the lives of children. | Characteristics of a traumatic event - sudden and unexpected
- abnormal and unacceptable life experience
- life-threatening
- it gives the person in question a reason to feel fear, helplessness or fright
- it is an attack on the senses
(AVSI Handbook for teachers (USAID), 2003, p. 12)  |